Chapter 2: History of Everywhere - Western ‘Freedom’ and Eastern ‘Order’

Following the development of ancient civilizations, the East and West evolved distinct governing philosophies to maintain large-scale communities. The West moved toward “individual participation and law,” while the East advanced toward “strong centralization and Confucian order.”

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1. Ancient Western States: Classical Antiquity

(1) Greek Polis and Athenian Democracy

• Polis: Independent city-state communities.
• Athenian Democracy: The origin of Direct Democracy. All adult male citizens participated in the assembly ($Ecclesia$) to decide policies.
• Philosophy: Exploration of human reason by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

(2) Rome: Completion of Law and Empire

• Roman Republic: A political system seeking a balance of power between aristocrats and commoners.
• Roman Law: Foundations of universal law systematized under the principle that “The law exists, but favoritism does not.”
• Imperialization: Integration of vast territories through strong military power and road networks (“All roads lead to Rome”).

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2. Ancient Eastern States: The Imperial Era

(1) Hundred Schools of Thought: The Golden Age of Philosophy

Numerous thinkers emerged to resolve the chaos of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.

• Confucianism: Confucius, Mencius. Governance through morality and ritual.
• Legalism: Shang Yang, Han Fei. Maintenance of order through strict Rule of Law and rewards/punishments.

(2) Qin and Han: Establishment of the Centralized Empire

• Qin: Completed the first unified empire based on Legalist thought. Implemented the Junxian System (Commandery-county system) and standardized weights and measures.
• Han: Relaxed the harsh Legalism of Qin and adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, setting the standard for Eastern politics for 2,000 years.

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3. Comparative Analysis: East vs. West

Comparison Item	West (Greco-Roman)	East (Qin-Han)
Political System	Democracy → Republic → Empire	Centralized Absolute Monarchy
Governing Principle	Rule by Citizenship and Law	Rule by Mandate of Heaven and Bureaucracy
Social Structure	Based on Contract and Private sphere	Based on Rites and Public order
Cultural Foundation	Human-centered Rationalism	Order-centered Moralism

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Key Checklist

• What is the form of government in ancient Athens where citizens directly participated in state affairs? (Answer: Direct Democracy)
• What is the collective name for the various thinkers and schools that emerged during the Warring States period? (Answer: Hundred Schools of Thought)
• What was the system where the Qin Emperor suppressed local powers and governed directly by dispatching officials from the center? (Answer: Junxian System)

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