Chapter 7: Nationalism and Empire — Unification and Imperial Expansion

The second half of the 19th century was the age of nation-building and empire-building. Nationalism — the idea that a people sharing language and culture deserve their own state — drove unification movements in Europe and modernization efforts in Asia. At the same time, industrialized Europe launched an unprecedented scramble for colonies across Africa and Asia.

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1. Nation-Building in Europe

German Unification (1871)

• Prussia’s Chancellor Otto von Bismarck pursued Realpolitik — pragmatic power politics over ideology.
• Three wars (against Denmark, Austria, and France) unified the German states under Prussian leadership.
• The German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles in January 1871.

Italian Unification (1861–1870)

• Cavour (diplomatic strategy), Garibaldi (military campaign in the south), and Victor Emmanuel II (Piedmontese king) united the fragmented Italian peninsula.
• Rome was incorporated as the capital in 1870.

Country	Key Figure	Method	Year Completed
Germany	Bismarck	”Blood and Iron” — three wars	1871
Italy	Cavour + Garibaldi	Diplomacy + popular uprising	1870

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2. The Meiji Restoration: Modernization from Below and Above

Japan’s response to Western imperialism was unique: rather than becoming colonized, Japan colonized its own traditions to modernize rapidly.

• 1868: The Meiji Restoration ended feudal rule; the Emperor was restored as head of a centralized state.
• Systematic adoption of Western institutions: constitutional government, a conscript army, railways, industrialization.
• 1894–95: Sino-Japanese War — Japan defeated Qing China, signaling its arrival as a regional power.
• 1904–05: Russo-Japanese War — Japan defeated a European great power, shocking the world.

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3. New Imperialism: The Scramble for the World

By the 1880s, industrial Europe needed raw materials and markets. Technological advantages — steamships, railroads, the Maxim gun, quinine — made conquest of tropical regions feasible.

The Scramble for Africa (1884–1914)

• At the Berlin Conference (1884–85), European powers divided Africa without consulting a single African. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent.
• The Congo under Belgian King Leopold II became infamous for brutal exploitation.

Asia: Britain controlled India, Burma, Malaya; France controlled Indochina; the Netherlands controlled Indonesia; the United States took the Philippines.

Justifications used: the “civilizing mission,” Social Darwinism, and religious conversion masked economic exploitation.

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Key Checklist

• What political philosophy guided Bismarck’s unification of Germany, prioritizing power over principle? (Answer: Realpolitik — “Blood and Iron” pragmatic power politics)
• What was the significance of Japan’s victory in the 1904–05 Russo-Japanese War? (Answer: It demonstrated that an Asian nation could defeat a European great power, inspiring anti-colonial movements)
• What conference in 1884–85 divided Africa among European powers without African representation? (Answer: The Berlin Conference)

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