Ch10. Constitutional Law — Comprehensive Review and Key Comparisons

Federal Institutions Comparison Chart

┌──────────────────┬───────────────┬──────────┬─────────────────────────┐
│ Office           │ Members       │ Term     │ Selection               │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ President        │ 1             │ 4 yrs    │ Electoral College        │
│                  │               │ max 2    │                         │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Vice President   │ 1             │ 4 yrs    │ Electoral College        │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Cabinet Sec.     │ 15 heads      │ At will  │ Pres. nomination +      │
│                  │               │          │ Senate confirmation      │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Chief Justice    │ 1             │ Life     │ Pres. nomination +      │
│                  │               │          │ Senate confirmation      │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Associate        │ 8             │ Life     │ Pres. nomination +      │
│ Justices         │               │          │ Senate confirmation      │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Senators         │ 100           │ 6 yrs    │ Popular vote (state)    │
├──────────────────┼───────────────┼──────────┼─────────────────────────┤
│ Representatives  │ 435           │ 2 yrs    │ Popular vote (district) │
└──────────────────┴───────────────┴──────────┴─────────────────────────┘

Critical Supermajority Thresholds

Congressional votes:
- Pass ordinary legislation: simple majority (quorum present)
- Override presidential veto: 2/3 of each chamber
- Propose constitutional amendment: 2/3 of each chamber
- Convict in Senate impeachment trial: 2/3 of Senators present
- Invoke cloture (end filibuster): 60 of 100 Senators
- Senate confirmation (judges, officers): simple majority
  (since 2017 nuclear option for all nominations)

Constitutional amendment ratification:
- 3/4 of states (38 of 50) must ratify

Presidential election (Electoral College):
- 270 of 538 electoral votes to win
- No Electoral College majority → House decides
  (one vote per state delegation — contingent election)

Supreme Court:
- Quorum: 6 Justices
- Decision on the merits: majority of participating Justices
- No formal supermajority to strike down a law

Rights Framework Comparison

┌──────────────┬────────────────┬────────────────┬────────────────┐
│ Category     │ Negative       │ Positive/      │ Political/     │
│              │ Liberty Rights │ Welfare Rights │ Participation  │
├──────────────┼────────────────┼────────────────┼────────────────┤
│ Nature       │ Defensive      │ Affirmative    │ Active/        │
│              │ (gov't abstain)│ (gov't provide)│ participatory  │
│ Who holds it │ All persons    │ Citizens       │ Citizens       │
│              │ (incl. aliens) │ (some aliens   │ (non-citizens  │
│              │                │ for some)      │ excluded)      │
│ Scrutiny     │ Strict (if     │ Rational basis │ Strict (voting,│
│              │ fundamental)   │ (no constit.   │ free speech)   │
│              │                │ right to welfare│               │
│ Direct effect│ Directly       │ Requires       │ Directly       │
│              │ enforceable    │ legislation    │ enforceable    │
│ Examples     │ Speech, press, │ No constitution│ Voting, ballot │
│              │ religion, arms │ right to housing│ access, party  │
│              │                │ (DeShaney)     │ participation  │
└──────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────┴────────────────┘

Note: Unlike many countries, the U.S. Constitution generally does
NOT recognize affirmative socioeconomic rights. DeShaney v.
Winnebago County (1989) held the Due Process Clause does not
impose a duty on government to protect citizens from private harm.

Supreme Court vs. Lower Federal Courts — Jurisdiction

Supreme Court jurisdiction:
① Appellate: review of federal court decisions (certiorari)
② Review of state supreme court decisions on federal questions
③ Original: cases between states, cases involving ambassadors
④ Constitutional review of all federal and state laws

Lower federal courts:
① Constitutional review at trial level (district courts)
② Statutory/regulatory review under APA
③ Factual record development
④ Circuit court precedent binding in circuit

Key distinction:
- No separate constitutional court in the U.S.
- All Art. III courts exercise constitutional review
- Supreme Court certiorari is discretionary (~1% of petitions granted)
- Circuit splits create incentive for SCOTUS review

Common Exam Mistakes

① Confusing constitutional amendment thresholds with ordinary legislation
   → Amendment: 2/3 propose + 3/4 ratify
   → Ordinary bill: simple majority + presidential signature (or override)

② Misidentifying who removes the President
   → Senate convicts by 2/3; House impeaches by simple majority
   → Conviction = removal; acquittal = remains in office

③ Confusing presidential appointment categories
   → Principal officers: Senate confirmation required
   → Inferior officers: Congress may vest in President alone

④ Effect of striking down a statute
   → Statute unenforceable (void); Congress may re-enact
   → Not retroactive for most civil matters;
   → Criminal: may support habeas relief

⑤ First Amendment — prior restraint vs. subsequent punishment
   → Prior restraint (pre-publication ban) is almost never allowed
   → Government may punish unprotected speech after the fact

⑥ No constitutional right to government benefits (DeShaney rule)
   → Once government creates a benefit (e.g., foster care), due
   process applies to its termination, but there is no initial entitlement

⑦ Cabinet vs. NSC deliberation
   → Cabinet has no formal mandatory deliberative role
   → NSC advises; President is not bound by advice

⑧ Electoral College — contingent election
   → If no candidate reaches 270 EVs, the House chooses the President
   (one vote per state delegation); Senate chooses the VP

Impeachment Thresholds ★★★★★ : House impeaches by simple majority. Senate convicts by 2/3 of Senators present. Separate Senate vote (majority) required for disqualification from future office. Memory hook: House = majority; Senate conviction = 2/3

Supreme Court’s Five Core Functions ★★★★★ : (1) Statutory constitutional review, (2) Presidential impeachment trial (Chief Justice presides), (3) Election law, (4) Separation-of-powers disputes, (5) Individual rights enforcement. Memory hook: review → impeachment → elections → separation → rights

Constitutional Amendment — Four-Step Process ★★★★★ : Introduced (simple majority in Congress OR 2/3 of state legislatures via convention) → Proposed (2/3 both chambers) → Ratified (3/4 of states) → Enacted. Memory hook: 2/3 propose → 3/4 ratify → no presidential veto

Practice Quiz (Comprehensive)

Q. How are the nine Supreme Court Justices selected, and what is unusual about their tenure?

The President nominates all nine Justices (including the Chief Justice); the Senate confirms by simple majority. They hold office for life under Art. III’s “good behavior” clause — there is no mandatory retirement age and no fixed term, making each appointment potentially decades-long.

Q. When a federal court declares a statute unconstitutional, what happens to that law?

The law is rendered unenforceable as applied in that case. If the Supreme Court rules, the decision binds all lower courts nationwide (stare decisis), effectively nullifying the law. Congress may respond by enacting a revised, constitutionally compliant statute.

Q. What is the difference between a constitutional challenge to a statute and an APA challenge to an agency rule?

A constitutional challenge argues the law violates the Constitution (struck down under judicial review). An APA challenge argues the agency rule is arbitrary and capricious, exceeds statutory authority, or violates procedural requirements — the court may vacate the rule without reaching constitutional issues. Constitutional avoidance doctrine: courts prefer to resolve cases on statutory/APA grounds if possible.