The Ottoman Empire: Six Hundred Years Across Three Continents

From a Small Tribe to a World Empire

In 1299, a minor Turkish chieftain named Osman declared independence in northwestern Anatolia (modern Turkey). Three hundred years later, his descendants ruled an empire spanning three continents.

The Ottoman Empire has long been portrayed in European history as “the Islamic threat.” But at its zenith, it was one of the most cosmopolitan, administratively sophisticated, and relatively tolerant multi-ethnic empires of its age.

The Age of Conquest

Mehmed II (r. 1444–1446, 1451–1481): Conquered Constantinople in 1453, renaming it Istanbul and making it the empire’s capital. Istanbul became the largest city in Europe within decades.

Selim I (r. 1512–1520): In just eight years, conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and the Arabian Peninsula — including Mecca and Medina. By controlling Islam’s holiest cities, the Ottoman sultan became the caliph, claiming supreme leadership of the Islamic world.

Suleiman I (r. 1520–1566): The empire’s peak. Called “the Magnificent” in Europe and “the Lawgiver” at home, he conquered Hungary, besieged Vienna, and dominated the Mediterranean.

The Millet System: The Ottoman Empire granted non-Muslim communities (Christians, Jews, Armenians) significant autonomy — their own courts, schools, and places of worship — under the millet system. While unequal by modern standards, it was notably more tolerant than the religious persecution common in contemporary European states.

The Devshirme System

One of the empire’s distinctive institutions was devshirme: periodic levy of boys from non-Muslim communities, who were converted to Islam, given elite education, and trained as soldiers (the famous Janissaries) or administrators.

Selected on merit rather than family background, devshirme recruits could rise to the highest offices, including Grand Vizier (prime minister). This meritocratic pipeline was a foundation of Ottoman administrative power.

Long Decline

After the failed second siege of Vienna (1683), the Ottoman Empire gradually lost territory to European powers and fell behind in military technology. By the 19th century, it was called “the Sick Man of Europe” — propped up by European powers reluctant to see it collapse into chaos.

Reform efforts (Tanzimat, 1839–1876) introduced constitutional government and modernization, but couldn’t reverse the structural decline.

Collapse and Legacy

The empire chose the losing side in World War I. The subsequent peace treaties stripped it of Arab territories (handed to Britain and France) and much of Anatolia. The last sultan was deposed in 1922. In 1923, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk proclaimed the modern Republic of Turkey and launched sweeping modernization.

The borders drawn by the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement — British and French diplomats dividing Ottoman Arab lands between themselves — created Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. Many of the Middle East’s enduring conflicts trace directly to those lines, drawn without meaningful consultation with the people who lived there.

Six hundred years of Ottoman history left a legacy still being reckoned with across three continents.